First study of 'Golden Age' mandolins unlocks secrets of their beauty

Mandolins made by G. Filano 1765 (a), A. Vinaccia 1785 (b), G.B. Fabricatore 1789 (c) and G. Gagliano 1799 (d). Credit: Image courtesy of Springer Science+Business Media

Analyzing varnishes and decorations could provide a new way to identify mandolin "Old Masters."

Some of the most elaborately decorated instruments in history were produced in 18th century Naples. The materials for varnishes and decorations used by individual mandolin masters, honed for wealthy clients in the ancient city's labyrinthine artisan quarter, have been kept secret for over 200 years. Details are disclosed for the first time by Tommaso Rovetta from the Università degli Studi di Pavia and colleagues at the Laboratorio Arvedi Research Group in Springer's journal Applied Physics A -- Materials Science & Processing.

Italian conservation scientists studied ten instruments from some of the most important dynasties of the "Golden Age" of Neapolitan mandolins. Advanced high-resolution imaging techniques shed light on some of the most jealously guarded decorative secrets and could provide a new way to accurately identify mandolins from specific workshops.

The Neapolitan mandolin was set apart by the deeper bowl of its body, producing a more resonant sound heard in works by Beethoven and Verdi. The style was developed by the Vinaccia family and adopted by other leading luthiers such as the Filano, Fabricatore and Gagliano families.

The scientists obtained mandolins from each of these makers courtesy of the National Museum of Musical Instruments in Rome and a private collector. Given their rarity and excellent state of conservation, only microscopic samples could be analysed from already-damaged areas. Nevertheless, the team was able to see that different workshops used different techniques and materials to achieve the same aesthetic effect.

"For mandolins of unknown origin, our results could represent a new way to identify where they were made and therefore their historic and economic value," says Tommaso Rovetta.

In particular, the resin used between patterns of pearl, ivory, bone or possibly horn around the sound hole contain a mixture unique to each workshop. Shellac, a resin from the lac beetle popular today in nail varnish, seems to be the only substance which formed a common base to which pigments and minerals were added. In a 1796 Fabricatore, a mineral found only in the volcanic lavas of Mount Vesuvius was detected. The mixtures in Vinaccia instruments were particularly complex and the scientists were surprised to find the fossilised remains of diatoms, a type of algae.

"We assume there were intense exchanges of technical know-how between masters and their apprentices but, with no written records, this knowledge was taken to the grave," says Rovetta. "We hope the rediscovery of ancient recipes will provide inspiration to today's luthiers."

Source: Springer Science+Business Media

Roman Gladiators ate a mostly vegetarian diet and drank a tonic of ashes after training

Anthropology unlocks clues about Roman gladiators' eating habits. Credit: OEAI, Pietsch

Roman gladiators ate a mostly vegetarian diet and drank ashes after training as a tonic. These are the findings of anthropological investigations carried out on bones of warriors found during excavations in the ancient city of Ephesos.

Historic sources report that gladiators had their own diet. This comprised beans and grains. Contemporary reports referred to them as "hordearii" ("barley eaters").

In a study by the Department of Forensic Medicine at the MedUni Vienna in cooperation with the Department of Anthropology at the Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Bern, bones were examined from a gladiator cemetery uncovered in 1993 which dates back to the 2nd or 3rd century BC in the then Roman city of Ephesos (now in modern-day Turkey). At the time, Ephesos was the capital of the Roman province of Asia and had over 200,000 inhabitants.

Using spectroscopy, stable isotope ratios (carbon, nitrogen and sulphur) were investigated in the collagen of the bones, along with the ratio of strontium to calcium in the bone mineral.

The result shows that gladiators mostly ate a vegetarian diet. There is virtually no difference in terms of nutrition from the local "normal population." Meals consisted primarily of grain and meat-free meals. The word "barley eater" relates in this case to the fact that gladiators were probably given grain of an inferior quality.

Build-up drink following physical exertion

The difference between gladiators and the normal population is highly significant in terms of the amount of strontium measured in their bones. This leads to the conclusion that the gladiators had a higher intake of minerals from a strontium-rich source of calcium. The ash drink quoted in literature probably really did exist. "Plant ashes were evidently consumed to fortify the body after physical exertion and to promote better bone healing," explains study leader Fabian Kanz from the Department of Forensic Medicine at the MedUni Vienna. "Things were similar then to what we do today -- we take magnesium and calcium (in the form of effervescent tablets, for example) following physical exertion." Calcium is essential for bone building and usually occurs primarily in milk products.

A further research project is looking at the migration of gladiators, who often came from different parts of the Roman Empire to Ephesos. The researchers are hoping that comparison of the bone data from gladiators with that of the local fauna will yield a number of differences.

Source: Medical University of Vienna

Water’s role in the rise and fall of the Roman Empire

Roman aqueduct of Luynes. Credit: Daniel Jolivet

Smart agricultural practices and an extensive grain-trade network enabled the Romans to thrive in the water-limited environment of the Mediterranean, a new study shows. But the stable food supply brought about by these measures promoted population growth and urbanisation, pushing the Empire closer to the limits of its food resources. The research, by an international team of hydrologists and Roman historians, is published today in Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, an open access journal of the European Geosciences Union (EGU).

Stretching over three continents and persisting for many centuries, the Roman Empire was home to an estimated 70 million people. In such a vast area ensuring a stable food supply was no easy task, particularly given the variable and arid climate of the Mediterranean region. So how did the Romans maintain reliable food supplies to their cities for centuries under such challenging conditions?

To find out, Brian Dermody, an environmental scientist from Utrecht University, teamed up with hydrologists from the Netherlands and classicists at Stanford University in the US. The researchers wanted to know how the way Romans managed water for agriculture and traded crops contributed to the longevity of their civilisation. They were also curious to find out if these practices played a role in the eventual fall of the Empire.

"We can learn much from investigating how past societies dealt with changes in their environment," says Dermody. He draws parallels between the Roman civilisation and our own. "For example, the Romans were confronted with managing their water resources in the face of population growth and urbanisation. To ensure the continued growth and stability of their civilisation, they had to guarantee a stable food supply to their cities, many located in water-poor regions."

In the Hydrology and Earth System Sciences paper, the team focused on determining the water resources required to grow grain, the staple crop of the Roman civilisation, and how these resources were distributed within the Empire. It takes between 1000 and 2000 litres of water to grow one kilo of grain. As Romans traded this crop, they also traded the water needed to produce it - they exchanged virtual water.

The researchers created a virtual water network of the Roman world. "We simulated virtual water trade based on virtual-water-poor regions (urban centres, such as Rome) demanding grain from the nearest virtual-water-rich region (agricultural regions, such as the Nile basin) in the network," explains Dermody.

The team used a hydrological model to calculate grain yields, which vary depending on factors such as climate and soil type. The authors used reconstructed maps of the Roman landscape and population to estimate where agricultural production and food demand were greatest. They also simulated the trade in grain based on an interactive reconstruction of the Roman transport network, which takes into account the cost of transport depending on factors such as distance and means of transportation.

Their virtual water network indicates that the Romans' ability to link the different environments of the Mediterranean through trade allowed their civilisation to thrive. "If grain yields were low in a certain region, they could import grain from a different part of the Mediterranean that experienced a surplus. That made them highly resilient to short-term climate variability," says Dermody.

But the Romans' innovative water-management practices may also have contributed to their downfall. With trade and irrigation ensuring a stable food supply to cities, populations grew and urbanisation intensified. With more mouths to feed in urban centres, the Romans became even more dependent on trade whilst at the same time the Empire was pushed closer to the limits of their easily accessible food resources. In the long term, these factors eroded their resilience to poor grain yields arising from climate variability.

"We're confronted with a very similar scenario today. Virtual water trade has enabled rapid population growth and urbanisation since the beginning of the industrial revolution. However, as we move closer to the limits of the planet's resources, our vulnerability to poor yields arising from climate change increases," concludes Dermody.

Source:  European Geosciences Union (EGU)